Rodney Stark's Social Movement Theory and Its Applicability to Sri Lanka
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| Rodney Stark - Founder of Social Movement Theory |
1.
A social movement is a type of group action.
Social movements can be defined as "organizational structures and
strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges
and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites". They are large,
sometimes informal, groupings of individuals or organizations which focus on
specific political or social issues. In other words, they carry out, resist, or
undo a social change. They provide a way of social change from the bottom
within nations.
2.
The early growth of social movements was
connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid-18th
century which, quietly spread over the civilizations in European and Western
countries as well as in the region of Asia. Number of civil rises, insurgencies
and wars as well as significant political regime changes recorded through out
the history caused by the social movements of communities which impact on the
global political and social stability sometimes. American Revolution and
Russian Revolution are two great examples of the impacts of social movements and
by now, you may be poking similar highlights in your brain cells with regard to
the Sri Lankan History which significantly changed the course of Sri Lankan
political paradigm time to time. Even the history can give a fare example
referring to “Vijayaba Revolt”, “Udarata Revolt”, “Black July Revolt” and many
more foot prints over the Sri Lankan history book.
3.
With the time, number of sociologists starting
with Gustav LeBon, Herbert Blumer,
William Kornhauser and Neil Smelser
came up with different theories and concepts to explain and understand the
social and individual behaviors under the various social and political
conditions and as a result, modern
social movement theories came up explaining collective social behavior,
rational choices, political impacts and cultural perspectives of social
movements and in this context, Rodney
Stark, an American sociologist and a
professor at the University of Washington came up with a holistic theory of
social movements. This assignment clearly analyses the applications and
applicability of Rodney Stark’s social movement theory to Sri Lanka.
The Social Movement Theory by Rodney Stark
4.
Social movement theory (SMT)s is an
interdisciplinary study within the social sciences that generally seeks to
explain why social mobilization occurs, the forms under which it manifests, as
well as potential social, cultural, and political consequences. Rodney Stark argues that the social movements occur “whenever people
organize to cause or prevent social change”. Stark’s definition implies two factors. First, there is something that has led people
to want change or desire to prevent it.
This is the grievance. Second,
there is someone or something preventing or driving change. This something or someone will, on some
level, resist the social movement. To
the extent that this resistance occurs, an adversarial political, social,
cultural, economic, or military relationship is likely to emerge.
5.
As is the case with most social movement
theorists, Stark organizes the variables that describe social movements into
structural and rational choice analytical systems. The first, collective behavior, “emphasizes
social movements as outbursts of group activity in response to deeply felt
grievances.” Individual and group rational decision-making is reemphasized in
favor of cultural-emotional responses.
The second, resource mobilization, minimizes grievances and stresses
rational choice, organization, and power within a society. The basis of dismissing grievances as a key
cause is the assumption that there exists enough discontent within almost any
society that, if properly mobilized, will lead to a social movement. Taken together, the two analytical structures
indicate two sets of four factors that explain why social movements occur and what
is required for social movements to succeed:
6.
For a social movement to occur:
a.
Some members if the society must share a grievance which they want to correct,
either by changing society or by preventing a change they oppose.
b.
These people must have hope – they must think there is some possibility of success.
c.
Often, but not always, a precipitating event will
ignite pent-up grievances and convince people that the time for action has
arrived.
d.
People are recruited by social movements through
networks of attachment... Not only are individuals
recruited through their network ties, social movements often originate within a network... Moreover, once a movement is underway,
sometimes whole networks, including those constituting formal organizations,
will join at one time.
7.
For a social movement to succeed:
a.
It must achieve an effective mobilization of people and resources. That is, a social movement will tend to be
more successful to the degree that it enjoys effective leadership, attracts
committed and disciplined members, and is able to secure the necessary finances
and facilities. These are classified as
internal factors influencing a social movement.
b.
It must withstand or overcome external opposition.
c. The fate of the social movement also depends on
enlisting external allies from other major groups and
powerful institutions in the society – or at least it must be able to keep them
neutral.
d. Whenever social movements arise in response to a
grievance that is widely shared, and when substantial resources are available,
the movement will tend to be embodied in a number of separate organizations. These social movement organizations may
cooperate, but often they compete rather vigorously.
8.
In summary, SMT consist with following eight
processes.
a.
Shared grievance
b.
Hope – a possibility for success
c.
Precipitating events
d.
People are recruited through networks of
attachments
e.
Mobilization of people and resources
f.
Overcome external oppositions
g.
Enlisting external allies
h.
Embody in separate organizations
Social Movement Theory Over Sri Lankan Context
9.
Sri Lanka was victimized with a devastating
wound of multiple chain of social movements blown across the country as
described early and the country just cures with nearly three decades fought
ruthless war but, still the country is pressured with multi-dimensional sociopolitical challenges which has triggered them in to complex social
uprisings and social movements. When it carefully analyses the present sociopolitical profile of the country with Rodney Stark’s SMT, following significant
tendencies are embeds as major acts of social movements in present Sri Lanka.
a. Arising
LTTE diaspora with global empowerment
b. SAITM
resist public movement
c. Defeat
of Rajapaksha’s regime
d. “Save
Wilpaththu”; social uprising against the deforestation of Wilpaththu
Arising LTTE Diaspora with Global Empowerment
10. Though Sri Lanka is at the aftermath stage of it’s thirty years fought conflict with LTTE, one of highest ranked terrorist organization in the world, still its embers are blown in different social segmentation. The ideology created by the pro-masters of LTTE is weaponized in different social and political powers today even getting more and more stronger with its global network of diaspora. Even today, this multinational sociopolitical dilemma impacts on Sri Lanka challenging its sovereignty, ethnicity, demography, economy, political sector and the total social segment in different levels. The insurgency began decades back as a social movement and turned in to a conflict and again, it feeds its existence as another social movement. Let’s analyze this social movement with Rodney Stark’s theory.
11.
Shared Grievances. Shared
grievances of this incident are the marginalization of Tamils in the
legislative council, making Sinhala language as official language aftermath the
independence from British’s, making Buddhism as the foremost religion in the
country in constitution, departing of Indian Tamils. This government action
made a humiliation among the minority Tamil community and further, it caused
Tamils to become more vigorous and to initiate a social movement. Multiple
failed attempt made by past governments caused this social movement to turn in
to an insurgency over a separation of their social and political freedom on a so-called
Elam.
12.
Hope. The Tamil community was
united under a common goal demanding a separate Elam with positive and bold
minded radical leadership of Sir Ponnambalam Arunachalam, Mr. Amirthalingam,
Uma Maheshwaran and Velupillai Prabakaran who bloomed a positive conception
among the Tamil community giving them a hope to believe.
13.
Precipitating Event. The tension
between Tamil racialists and the government was significantly increased and
wrapped with more violations and in the late 1983, the continued pressure by
the government on violated social uprising flamed the “Black July”, a riot in
which, Tamils proceed with their precipitating event organizing as the
Liberation of Tamil Tigers’ Elam (LTTE). Further the assassination of LTTE
leader Prabakaran’s father was another route cause to step up the LTTE
organization in to more dangerous condition.
14.
Recruitment of People Through Networks of Attachments.
At the end of the Black July, Tamil rebels were organized under cover of the government
and they expanded their carder with a massive recruitment plan. Some were
motivated a voluntarily joined with the organization and some were forcefully
recruited. Most of Young Tamils mobilized their movement in to the
universities, temples and selected villages and communities. Further, they
restricted their organizational leadership making more precise and stable even
empowering with political and media enforcement. Specially, the political
segment extended a significant political propaganda among local and global
communities along with their media network which directly blessed the
organizational growth.
15.
Mobilization of People and Resources.
The LTTE were a highly organized and a powerful organization. They were fed
with a multinational network by worldwide Tamil communities and political
supporters. They extended their force structure even acquiring maritime and air
capability. The organizational leadership fed their carder with high end morale
and motivation which even motivate them to become suicidal human bombs. Among
the native community, LTTE carders were given a heroic mindset and this new
outfit could lift their funds rapidly in a considerable level in turn, it
further benefited on strengthen the force and power of the organization.
16.
Overcome External Oppositions. Funds
and resources for the Tamil campaign were feed by the Tamils diaspora who well
established in European countries. During this social movement as the external
oppositions they faced Sinhala nationalists and Armed forces. The Sri Lankan
Armed forces were the major barrier they faced during this process. To overcome
those opposition powers, LTTE took number of strategies and tactical decisions
and at some points, their strategies neutralized and broke over the political
stability of the government and also collapsed the social and economic equilibrium
of the country in the advantage of giving more leeway on the side of LTTE. The
political and international arena was playing a vital role in this context
giving them a more coverage and a support in different aspects. Further,
simultaneous attacks on island wide civil community distracted the force
concentration of government forces giving more advantage on the LTTE grounds
and the LTTE’s merged force over the civil Tamil community made their survival stronger
making it a complete and complex undercover for their operations.
17.
Enlisting External Allies. The LTTE
had a strong external supportive network from international community. The
Tamilnadu government was a back-bone support to the LTTE. Not only by finding,
training their carders and providing logistic and arms support, Tamilnadu
government stands for LTTE even at the international forums safeguarding their
ideology and adding much weight on their political power.
18.
Embody
in Separate Organizations. LTTE
planted their ideology in number of non-governmental Tamil organizations
worldwide as well as some of Tamil and local political parties and
organizations. If you are aware of this quiet well, not only the Tamil National
Alliance (TNA), even some politicians like Prof. Wickramabahu Karunarathna
still stands for the benefit of the LTTE.
SAITM Resist Public Movement
20.
Shared Grievances. The issue of SAITM
tackled with two social divisions. The Government Medical Officers’ Association
(GMAO) initiated charging the Dr. Nevil Fernando, the chairman and the owner
and SAITM management with emitting poor-quality production to the government
health service and directly they pointed out the risk facing on the lives of
the patients who are being treated by the SAITM trained doctors. Most of the
medical practitioners of the government sat along with GMOA opinion. In the
flip side, the SAITM management and victimized students of SITM stood against
the allegation raised by the GMOA.
21.
Hope. The GMOA’s will was to stop medical training at the SAITM intending
safeguarding of national health service and its quality; and SAITM management
and the students reorganized to protect their right on private education within
the national legal framework. Initially,
the act by GMOA deemed to be quiet a selfish and further it was indirectly put
them in a circle with their hidden mandate on the security of GMOA monopoly in
the Sri Lankan medical field. Partially, it was a tool for GMOA to force
government to revamp some policies of ECTA which could affect to the government
health sector. These complex intentions of both communities were further strengthened
with political powers of different political segments.
22.
Precipitating Events. The SAITM issue was further arise with the
deprecate programs conducted by student of government medical faculties and
the strike programs worked out by the GMOA. The deadly fasting protests
conducted by the parents of SAITM students, the country wide walk outs/ rallies
carried out by GMOA and General hospital doctors including minor staff and
medical students of the government universities , Change of GMOA chair, Fraud
attempting murder attack displayed by a SAITM Chairman in his own car, Arresting
of medical students who walked out the rally by blocking the Colombo main road
and attacking them by the police using water/tear gasses like events were hot
topics in the eve of SAITM social movement.
23.
People are Recruited Through Network of Attachment.
GMOA continuously forced the government with a series of strikes, protests and
rallies adjoining with number of government medical institutions and hospitals
country wide taking their maximum force in to the roads. In the other side, the
victimized SAITM management and students gathered more social power with
involvement of their parents and other students.
24.
Mobilization of People and Resources.
Both parties used electronic media as well as printed media as a massive weapon
against their opponents and also for mobilization of the local community. GMOA
conducted several awareness progams island wide moreover spreading their
ideology in to the social community with a considerable intensity. High medical
professionals and learned iconic personnel were key assets that GMOA used to
mobilize their movement over different social levels.
25.
Overcome External Opposition. Continuous
chain of strikes and protests were a perfect tool for GMOA to counter their
opposition by depressing the government. Apart from the strikes, public
disturbances occurred by walks and street protests were another hectic issue
where the government was deucedly forced take immediate solution to keep the
situation controlled at a level. At the
outset GMOA and medical student party make successive overcome to external
opposition against SAITM. But, in another way, SAITM management strategically
used their political backing to safe their side against the harsh social power
backed by the GMOA.
26.
Enlisting External Allies. The
GMOA did not fight along itself. Number of trade unions in the commercial and
government sector was adjoined with GMOA making it a huge force against the
SAITM bias parties and even they were backed by the various political powers of
the government and some other parties. Nevertheless, transport, education and
many more segments of the social sector were hand to hand with GMOA which was quite
adequate to force the government to achieve their goal.
27.
Embody
in Separate Organizations.
Today, the SAITM uprising is resolved but yet, number of institutes, public and
private organizations are stand against it keeping the tension under the
pillow. The roadmap laid by the GMOA was implanted in these social groups
precisely which ensure the security and the sustainability of the government
resolution given on the SAITM issue.
Defeat of Rajapaksha’s Regime
28. On 8th January 2015 morning, with fewer than half the votes counted in Sri Lanka’s presidential election, incumbent president Mahinda Rajapaksa unobtrusively moved out of his official residence at Temple Trees in Colombo. This was a quiet end to a political dynasty few thought would fall so easily. It also heralded the victory of Maithripala Sirisena and his devoted good government with PM, Ranil Wickramasinghe. This wasn’t an accident. The Sirisena’s rise was a cooperative result of a massive social movement over a period.
29.
Shared
Grievances. President Rajapaksa
was seen as a national hero for defeating the separatist Liberation Tigers of
Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in 2009 in a bloody and controversial end to Sri Lanka’s
civil war. The evoking of his elder son,
Namal Rajapaksha was signaled a crowned-prince of the future Sri Lanka and heir
apparent to a new emerging Asian dynasty which induced a normative public
propaganda by opposing political groups. Further, President Rajapaksha boldly
imprisoned his former army commander Sarath Fonseka and stripped him of his
rank and medals after a failed attempt to unseat Rajapaksa at the last
presidential election in 2010. He sacked Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake,
and replaced her with his former attorney-general and personal legal confidant
Mohan Peiris. He vilified anyone who supported calls for war crimes
investigations linked to the closing stages of the civil war. These
circumstances were enough to his opponents and some social groups to create a
public propaganda against the rule of the President Rajapaksha and ultimately,
he was sacked in his own legacy. The
grievance was more noticed to the public when his secretary of the party,
Mnister Sirisena left the government and joined with the opposition against president
Rajapaksha’s rule.
30.
Hope. The hope on eliminating
Rajapaksha’s regime formed in two different ways. The real public will which
glanced by some radical patriots and social leaders were depreciating the
president Rajapaksha and his government on early said circumstances and in
other way, the long term politically defeated United National Party and other
opposing political leaders were nailing for an opportunity to grab the
political power from the President Rajapaksha and his government and at the
end, the intention and will of both parties were met on eliminating president
Rajapaksha’s regime.
31.
Precipitating
Events. By the time the Movement
for a Just Society was initiated by Venerable Sobhitha Thero, the country had
witnessed a distinct progress in social consciousness compared to what it was
during the period prior to the 2010 Presidential elections. The educated, now
knew about the magnitude of corruption and malpractices of the ruling class to
a considerable extent. The social consciousness which remained stagnant during
troubled times began to move in a more progressive direction, slowly but
steadily. Number of campaigns and rallies were organized across the country and
also the social media was weaponized with anti-Rajapaksha posts to influence
the public effectively.
32.
People
are Recruited Through Network of Attachment. The development of “movement for a just society” was widely spread
among the educated society which compelled more people and social groups to
join with it. The political leaders also realized that it was no longer possible
for them to manipulate society at their whims and fancies in their trial for
political power. They were compelled to abandon the old policy of thrusting
their power on society and instead adopted a policy of listening to the views
of educated society. Iconic politicians, civil society leaders and youth
leaders were strongly stood with this social movement making it more and more
stronger. Even the most of trade unions who supported this social movement were
standing with it.
33.
Mobilization
of People and Resources. The movement was powerful enough to influence
the entire community of the Sri Lanka. The movement was politically empowered
in parliamentarian as well as in rural level. the influence on the public was
created a huge social raise led by supporters of the movement and even this
massive social power led some confreres of president Rajapaksha to leave the
government.
34.
Overcome
External Opposition. The only
opposition for the movement was the government of president Rajapaksha and his
supporters. Contrary to the expectation of the Movement for a Just Society, the
objective of the political leaders had been limited to defeating the Mahinda
Rajapaksa regime and setting up of a regime of their own. They had neither the
vision nor the intention to make far-reaching changes in the system of
governance. Still, the real opponent of the resident Rajapaksha at the
forthcoming election was unrevealed and the national force was led with a
hidden leadership until Minister Sirisena joined with the force. However, in
the absence of adequate institutional and political capacity to assist in and
accelerate a dynamic transformation, the prospect of effecting in-depth and
far-reaching changes in the larger picture remains rather remote.
Paradoxically, there is no alternate third force either, for the voters to
choose from.
35.
Enlisting
External Allies. The arrival of Minister Sirisena to contest for the
presidential election was a turning point of the national movement. With this,
number of president Rajaksha’s confreres were joined the allied force as well
as all most all opposing political parties also were hand to hand with the
national front.
36.
Embody
in Separate Organizations. Even today, the social and political
resistance to president Rajapksha’s regime is exists as the initiated ideology
has been precisely planted in the public groups and in the most of social
actors and their organizations. The final result was the defeat of president
Rajapaksha at the presidential election fulfilling the hope of the resistive
national force.
“Save Wilpaththu”; Social Uprising Against the Deforestation of Wilpaththu
37.
The controversy over the alleged deforestation
in the Wilpattu area by certain politicians has now resurfaced. It had been
dragged on for the past three to four years intermittently creating media
debates, without the authorities attempting to settle the issue for good. This
has thus created a situation where politicians and rabble-rouses can have
field days in media talk-shows. While pointing the finger at Commerce and Trade
Minister Rishad Bathiudeen, the environmentalists argue that a large area of
land belonging to the Forest Conservation Department has been cleared by the encroaches unlawfully. However, now, the issue has taken a religious twist
with Muslim Parliamentarians accusing the government of failing to look into
the welfare of the Muslims and this may further develop in to a racism or an
ethnic struggle with public movement and social power gathered around it.
38.
Shared Grievances. Most of the Sri Lankans were raised their
hands against the deforestation of Wilpaththu forest as soon as it was revealed
by the public and social media. All of the environmental organizations and
electronic/printed media have reported the aftermath of this issue as well as
the post-impact of losing this valuable national heritage. Sometime this
conflict was displayed as an approach of religious invasion or an ethnic
invasion leading the edges of extremism in
public. The different perceptions of different social groups finally set
on saving the Wilpaththu from continuing harnessing.
39.
Hope.
The people who raise their voice against the devastation at Wilpaththu turned
it to a national force. All Medias specially, the social medias were reported
as it violated the national interest of the country and finally, the attempt
resulted with a good end leading the matter to the court. The
common will of all involving parties were set on stopping this annihilation and
reclaiming the affected forest stripe.
40.
Precipitating Events. The organization called ‘Bodhu Bala Sena’ was
the premier reporter on this issue. And same time the ‘Hiru’ media channel and
some programs like “Balumgala” also gave a covered tale on television and
social media to open up eyes of responsible authorities. Specially, some
environmental friendly social groups conducted a huge campaign over the social
networks
41.
People are Recruited Through Network of Attachment. The huge media propaganda dragged more public
attention over the issue and this led numerous parties to get on the street
against the alleged parties. Legal firms, environmental lovers, young
racialists and even the politicians were gathered and stand along the patriots
of this national force.
42.
Mobilization of People and Resources.
To mobilize the people, numerous organizations were carrying out walks and
awareness programs in many sectors. Political debates were opened to share
the ideas and even the debated were raised at the parliament. Time to time,
alertness of media stories gave indirect support to ban the destruction but
still, it’s continuing. However, all these attempts were succeeded by keeping
the public eye open at the issue in a considerable level.
43.
Overcome External Opposition. The only opposition party on this issue
was Minister Rishad Bathiudeen, commerce and the trade minister who alleged
with this deforestation at Wilpaththu which was keep in undercover with his
resettlement program of displaced Muslims. The political abduction was
deprived the government action over the case but only tool to press the
authorities was the legal framework of the dispute. With this, the president
enforced a ban over the deforestation program and appointed a independent
commission to investigate the matter.
44.
Enlisting External Allies. Though the Wilpaththu was conserved as a
reserved national sanctuary of Sri Lanka, none of international organization did
not involve with the issue looking for a perfect solution. But, at the point,
number of governmental and non-governmental organizations, social groups and
individuals collaborated for a national voice against the issue.
45.
Embody
in Separate Organizations. Finally, the initiation of media and few
environmentalists to stop the deforestation of Wilpaththu could implant in
several organizations where the social movement against the matter was more
secured.
Conclusion
46.
Social movement are not just arisen. They are
loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically
either the implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure
or values. Although social movements differ in size, they are all essentially
collective. That is, they result from the more or less spontaneous coming
together of people whose relationships are not defined by rules and procedures
but who merely share a common outlook on society. However, this phenomenon was
perfectly explained by professor Rodney Stark with his social movement theory.
According to him, it’s a sequential process and that concept precisely
adoptable by most of the communities in modern world too.
47.
In looking across all of the movements and the
social movement highlighted in the article pertaining to the Sri Lanka, it is
apparent that the social movements created were less about the organization
interested in creating a movement, and more about individuals seeing an
opportunity to bring people together for a common goal. That through
opportunities such as social media, organizing techniques, and grassroots
efforts, social movement builders strive to maintain the core foundation of the
movement and purpose throughout that the movement itself is just an organized
entity that represents so many who feel empowered through a common voice and
action together.
48.
Finally, social movements are not just a burden
and a fact of collapsing the stability of the social and political system of a
state or a society. They make a considerable contribution on changing the
direction of public power in favor of achieving a common interest or a change
and also, social movements are weapon for societies to fight against uprising
political injustices.
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